注释:

1. See, for example, Barbara Bradley Hagerty, “Evangelicals Question the Existence of Adam and Eve,” National Public Radio, August 9, 2011, accessed March 6, 2012, and Richard N. Ostling,“The Search for the Historical Adam,” Christianity Today, June 2011, accessed March 6, 2012.

2. The tree was recently redrawn—and the terminology changed—to accommodate sequence data that (mostly) places us in our own group with chimps. Previously the same group was called the hominids, but that term now covers all great apes and us. Some articles still use the older terminology. See http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/12/1204_hominin_id.html.

3. For more details on the subject, see chapter 3 on “Human Origins and the Fossil Record” by Casey Luskin later in this volume.

4. Ernst Mayr, What Makes Biology Unique? (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 198.

5. For a discussion of one kind of rearrangement that is often used as evidence for common descent, see chapter 4 by Casey Luskin on “Francis Collins, Junk DNA, and Chromosomal Fusion.”

6. T. C. Wood, “The chimpanzee genome and the problem of biological similarity,” Occas Papers of the BSG 7 (2006): 1–18; G. Glazko, et. al., “Eighty percent of proteins are different between humans and chimpanzees,” Gene 346 (2005): 215–219; J. Cohen, “Relative differences: The myth of 1%,” Science 316 (2007): 1836.

7. A. K. Gauger and D. D. Axe, “ The evolutionary accessibility of new enzyme functions: A case study from the biotin pathway,” BIO-Complexity 2, no. 1 (2011): 1–17.

8. Ibid.

9. Douglas Axe amplifies this story to underscore the insufficiency of the neo-Darwinian engine to drive evolutionary change in the next chapter.

10. D. M. Bramble and D. E. Lieberman, “Endurance running and the evolution of Homo,” Nature 432 (2004): 345–352.

11. “Lucy” is 40% complete as a skeleton, with only a thigh bone and partial pelvis to reconstruct her lower limbs, while “Turkana boy” is missing only the hands and feet.

12. J. Hawks et al., “Population bottlenecks and Pleistocene human evolution,” Mol Biol Evol 17 (2000): 2–22.

13. Bramble and Lieberman, “Endurance running.” For a list of hundreds of phenotypic traits in humans that differ from the great apes, see A. Varki and T. K. Altheide, “Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: Searching for needles in a haystack,” Genome Research 15 (2005): 1746–1758.

14. A nucleotide-binding site is a piece of DNA eight nucleotides long. Durrett and Schmidt (see below) calculated how long it would take for a single mutation to generate a seven out of eight match for an eight nucleotide binding site (with six out of eight nucleotides already correct) in a stretch of DNA onethousand nucleotides long. Creation of such a binding site might affect the behavior of genes in the region, thus affecting the phenotype of the organism.

15. R. Durrett and D. Schmidt, “Waiting for regulatory sequences to appear,” Annals of Applied Probability 17 (2007): 1–32. The relevant information appears on p. 19, where the time to fixation is factored in.

16. R. Durrett and D. Schmidt, “Waiting for two mutations: With applications to regulatory sequence evolution and the limits of Darwinian evolution,” Genetics 180 (2008): 1501–1509.

17. A. K. Gauger et al., “Reductive evolution can prevent populations from taking simple adaptive paths to high fitness,” BIO-Complexity 1, no. 2 (2010): 1–9, doi:10.5048/BIO-C.

18. For a review pointing out unsolved conundrums concerning our uniqueness, see a recent review by A. Varki et al., “Explaining human uniqueness: genome interactions with environment, behavior and culture,” Nature Reviews Genetics 9 (2008): 749–763.