注释:
1. Ronald Wetherington testimony before Texas State Board of Education (January 21, 2009). Original recording on file with author, SBOECommt-FullJan2109B5.mp3, Time Index 1:52:00-1:52:44.
2. Ibid.
3. Donald Johanson and Blake Edgar, From Lucy to Language (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 22–23.
4. Richard Lewontin, Human Diversity (New York: Scientific American Library, 1995), 163.
5. Stephen Jay Gould, The Panda’s Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1980), 126.
6. Frans B. M. de Waal, “Apes from Venus: Bonobos and Human Social Evolution,” in Tree of Origin: What Primate Behavior Can Tell Us about Human Social Evolution, ed. Frans B. M. de Waal (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 68.
7. Ibid.
8. C. E. Oxnard, “The place of the australopithecines in human evolution:grounds for doubt?,” Nature, 258 (December 4, 1975): 389–95 (internal citation removed).
9. See Alton Biggs, Kathleen Gregg, Whitney Crispen Hagins, Chris Kapicka, Linda Lundgren, Peter Rillero, National Geographic Society, Biology: The Dynamics of Life (New York: Glencoe, McGraw Hill, 2000), 442–43.
10. See notes 124–139 and accompanying text.
11. Sigrid Hartwig-Scherer and Robert D. Martin, “Was ‘Lucy’ more human than her ‘child’? Observations on early hominid postcranial skeletons,” Journal of Human Evolution, 21 (1991): 439–49.
12. For example, see Biggs et al., Biology: The Dynamics of Life, 438; Esteban E. Sarmiento, Gary J. Sawyer, and Richard Milner, The Last Human: A Guide to Twenty-two Species of Extinct Humans (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 75, 83, 103, 127, 137; Johanson and Edgar, From Lucy to Language, 82; Richard Potts and Christopher Sloan, What Does it Mean to be Human? (Washington D.C.: National Geographic, 2010), 32–33, 36, 66, 92; Carl Zimmer, Smithsonian Intimate Guide to Human Origins (Toronto: Madison Press, 2005), 44, 50.
13. Jonathan Marks, What It Means to be 98% Chimpanzee: Apes, People, and their Genes (University of California Press, 2003), xv.
14. Earnest Albert Hooton, Up From The Ape, Revised ed. (New York: McMillan, 1946), 329.
15. For a firsthand account of one paleoanthropologist’s experiences with the harsh political fights of his field, see Lee R. Berger and Brett Hilton-Barber, In the Footsteps of Eve: The Mystery of Human Origins (Washington D.C.: Adventure Press, National Geographic, 2000).
16. Constance Holden, “The Politics of Paleoanthropology,” Science, 213 (1981): 737–40.
17. Ibid.
18. Johanson and Edgar, From Lucy to Language, 32.
19. Mark Davis, “Into the Fray: The Producer’s Story,” PBS NOVA Online (February 2002), accessed March 12, 2012, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/neanderthals/producer.html.
20. Henry Gee, “Return to the planet of the apes,” Nature, 412 (July 12, 2001): 131–32.
21. Phylogeny in Figure 3-1 based upon information from multiple sources, including Carl Zimmer, Smithsonian Intimate Guide to Human Origins (Toronto: Madison Books, 2005), 41; Meave Leakey and Alan Walker, “Early Hominid Fossils from Africa,” Scientific American (August 25, 2003), 16; Potts and Sloan, What Does it Mean to be Human?, 32–33; Ann Gibbons, The First Human: The Race to Discover our Earliest Ancestors (New York: Doubleday, 2006); Ann Gibbons, “A New Kind of Ancestor: Ardipithecus Unveiled,” Science, 326 (October 2, 2009): 36–40.
22. “Skull find sparks controversy,” BBC News (July 12, 2002), accessed March 4, 2012, “One of Dr Senut’s colleagues, Dr Martin Pickford, who was in London this week, is also reported to have told peers that he thought the new Chadian skull was from a ‘proto-gorilla’.”
23. Milford H. Wolpoff, Brigitte Senut, Martin Pickford, and John Hawks, “Sahelanthropus or ‘Sahelpithecus’?,” Nature, 419 (October 10, 2002): 581–82.
24. Ibid.
25. Mark Collard and Bernard Wood, “How reliable are human phylogenetic hypotheses?,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 97 (April 25, 2000): 5003–06.
26. Ronald Wetherington testimony before Texas State Board of Education (January 21, 2009). Time Index 2:06:00-2:06:08.
27. Bernard Wood, “Hominid revelations from Chad,” Nature, 418 (July 11, 2002):133–35.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid.
30. Potts and Sloan, What Does it Mean to be Human?, 38.
33. Leslie C. Aiello and Mark Collard, “Our newest oldest ancestor?,” Nature, 410 (March 29, 2001): 526–27.
34. K. Galik, B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery, J. Treil, A. J. Kuperavage, and R. B. Eckhardt, “External and Internal Morphology of the BAR 1002’00 Orrorin tugenensis Femur,” Science, 305 (September 3, 2004): 1450–53.
35. Sarmiento, Sawyer, and Milner, The Last Human: A Guide to Twenty-two Species of Extinct Humans, 35.
36. Christopher Wills, Children Of Prometheus: The Accelerating Pace Of Human Evolution (Reading: Basic Books, 1999), 156.
37. “Fossils May Look Like Human Bones: Biological Anthropologists Question Claims for Human Ancestry,” Science Daily (February 16, 2011), accessed March 4, 2012, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110216132034.htm.
38. Bernard Wood and Terry Harrison, “The evolutionary context of the first hominins,” Nature, 470 (February 17, 2011): 347–52.
40. Aiello and Collard, “Our newest oldest ancestor?,” 526–27.
41. Tim White, quoted in Ann Gibbons, “In Search of the First Hominids,” Science, 295 (February 15, 2002): 1214–19.
42. Jennifer Viegas, “‘Ardi,’ Oldest Human Ancestor, Unveiled,” Discovery News (October 1, 2009), accessed March 4, 2012, http://news.discovery.com/history/ardi-human-ancestor.html.
44. Ann Gibbons, “Breakthrough of the Year: Ardipithecus ramidus,” Science, 326 (December 18, 2009): 1598–99.
45. Ann Gibbons, “A New Kind of Ancestor: Ardipithecus Unveiled,” 36–40.
46. Gibbons, “In Search of the First Hominids,” 1214–19.
47. Michael D. Lemonick and Andrea Dorfman, “Ardi Is a New Piece for the Evolution Puzzle,” Time (October 1, 2009), accessed March 4, 2012, http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,1927289,00.html.
48. Gibbons, “A New Kind of Ancestor: Ardipithecus Unveiled,” 36–40. See also Gibbons, The First Human: The Race to Discover our Earliest Ancestors, 15 (“The excitement wastempered, however, by the condition of the skeleton.The bone was so soft and crushed that White later described it as road-kill”).
50. Gibbons, “A New Kind of Ancestor: Ardipithecus Unveiled,” 36–40.
51. Esteban E. Sarmiento, “Comment on the Paleobiology and Classification of Ardipithecus ramidus,” Science, 328 (May 28, 2010): 1105b.
52. Gibbons, “A New Kind of Ancestor: Ardipithecus Unveiled,” 36–40.
53. Wood and Harrison, “The evolutionary context of the first hominins,” 347–52.
54. “Fossils May Look Like Human Bones: Biological Anthropologists Question Claims for Human Ancestry.”
55. John Noble Wilford, “Scientists Challenge ‘Breakthrough’ on Fossil Skeleton,” New York Times (May 27, 2010), accessed March 4, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/28/science/28fossil.html.
57. Ibid.
59. Seth Borenstein, “Fossil discovery fills gap in human evolution,” MSNBC (April 12, 2006), accessed March 4, 2012, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12286206/.
60. See Figure 4, Tim D. White, Giday WoldeGabriel, Berhane Asfaw, Stan Ambrose, Yonas Beyene, Raymond L. Bernor, Jean-Renaud Boisserie, Brian Currie, Henry Gilbert, Yohannes Haile-Selassie, William K. Hart, Leslea J. Hlusko, F. Clark Howell, Reiko T. Kono, Thomas Lehmann, AntoineLouchart, C. Owen Lovejoy, Paul R. Renne, Haruo Saegusa, Elisabeth S. Vrba, Hank Wesselman, and Gen Suwa, “Asa Issie, Aramis and the origin ofAustralopithecus,” Nature, 440 (April 13, 2006): 883–89.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid.
63. Borenstein, “Fossil discovery fills gap in human evolution.”
64. Tim White, quoted in Gibbons, “In Search of the First Hominids,” 1214–19.
65. See for example Bernard A. Wood, “Evolution of the australopithecines,” in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution, eds. Steve Jones, Robert Martin, and David Pilbeam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 231–40.
66. Tim White, quoted in Donald Johanson and James Shreeve, Lucy’s Child: The Discovery of a Human Ancestor (New York: Early Man Publishing, 1989), 163.
67. Gibbons, The First Human: The Race to Discover our Earliest Ancestors, 86.
68. Berger and Hilton-Barber, In the Footsteps of Eve: The Mystery of Human Origins, 114.
69. See for example Bernard A. Wood, “Evolution of the australopithecines,” 232.
70. Mark Collard and Leslie C. Aiello, “From forelimbs to two legs,” Nature, 404 (March 23, 2000): 339–40.
71. Collard and Aiello, “From forelimbs to two legs,” 339–40. See also Brian G. Richmond and David S. Strait, “Evidence that humans evolved from a knuckle-walking ancestor,” Nature, 404 (March 23, 2000): 382–85.
72. Ibid.
73. Jeremy Cherfas, “Trees have made man upright,” New Scientist, 97 (January 20, 1983): 172–77.
74. Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin, Origins Reconsidered: In Search of What Makes Us Human, (New York: Anchor Books, 1993), 195.
75. Ibid., 193–94.
76. Figure 3-7 based upon Figure 1 in John Hawks, Keith Hunley, Sang-Hee Lee, and Milford Wolpoff, “Population Bottlenecks and Pleistocene Human Evolution,” Journal of Molecular Biology and Evolution, 17 (2000): 2–22.
77. Fred Spoor, Bernard Wood, and Frans Zonneveld, “Implications of early hominid labyrinthine morphology for evolution of human bipedal locomotion,” Nature, 369 (June 23, 1994): 645–48.
78. See Timothy G. Bromage and M. Christopher Dean, “Re-evaluation of the age at death of immature fossil hominids,” Nature, 317 (October 10, 1985): 525–27.
79. See Ronald J. Clarke and Phillip V. Tobias, “Sterkfontein Member 2 Foot Bones of the Oldest South African Hominid,” Science, 269 (July 28, 1995): 521–24.
80. Peter Andrews, “Ecological Apes and Ancestors,” Nature, 376 (August 17, 1995): 555–56.
81. Oxnard, “The place of the australopithecines in human evolution: grounds for doubt?,” 389–95.
82. Yoel Rak, Avishag Ginzburg, and Eli Geffen, “Gorilla-like anatomy on Australopithecus afarensis mandibles suggests Au. afarensis link to robust australopiths,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 104 (April 17, 2007): 6568–72.
83. Donald C. Johanson, C. Owen Lovejoy, William H. Kimbel, Tim D. White, Steven C. Ward, Michael E. Bush, Bruce M. Latimer, and Yves Coppens, “Morphology of the Pliocene Partial Hominid Skeleton (A.L. 288-1). From the Hadar Formation, Ethiopia,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 57 (1982): 403–51.
84. François Marchal, “A New Morphometric Analysis of the Hominid Pelvic Bone,” Journal of Human Evolution, 38 (March, 2000): 347–65.
85. M. Maurice Abitbol, “Lateral view of Australopithecus afarensis: primitive aspects of bipedal positional behavior in the earliest hominids,” Journal of Human Evolution, 28 (March, 1995): 211–29 (internal citations removed).
86. Leslie Aiello quoted in Leakey and Lewin, Origins Reconsidered: In Search of What Makes Us Human, 196. See also Bernard Wood and Mark Collard, “The Human Genus,” Science, 284 (April 2, 1999): 65–71.
87. F. Spoor, M. G. Leakey, P. N. Gathogo, F. H. Brown, S. C. Antón, I. McDougall, C. Kiarie, F. K. Manthi, and L. N. Leakey, “Implications of new early Homo fossils from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana, Kenya,” Nature, 448 (August 9, 2007): 688–91.
88. Ian Tattersall, “The Many Faces of Homo habilis,” Evolutionary Anthropology, 1 (1992): 33–37.
89. Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H. Schwartz, “Evolution of the Genus Homo,” Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 37 (2009): 67–92. Paleoanthropologists Daniel E. Lieberman, David R. Pilbeam, and Richard W. Wrangham likewise co-write that “fossils attributed to H. habilis are poorly associated with inadequate and fragmentary postcrania.” Daniel E. Lieberman, David R. Pilbeam, and Richard W. Wrangham, “The Transition from Australopithecus to Homo,” in Transitions in Prehistory: Essays in Honor of Ofer Bar-Yosef, eds. John J. Shea and Daniel E. Lieberman (Cambridge: Oxbow Books, 2009), 1. See also Ann Gibbons, “Who Was Homo habilis—And Was It Really Homo?,” Science, 332 (June 17, 2011): 1370–71 (“researchers labeled a number of diverse, fragmentary fossils from East Africa and SouthAfrica ‘H. habilis,’ making the taxon a ‘grab bag… a Homo waste bin,’ says paleoanthropologist Chris Ruff of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland”).
90. Alan Walker, “The Origin of the Genus Homo,” in The Origin and Evolution of Humans and Humanness, ed. D. Tab Rasmussen (Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 1993), 31.
91. Ibid.
92. See Spoor et al., “Implications of new early Homo fossils from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana, Kenya,” 688–91; Seth Borenstein, “Fossils paint messy picture of human origins,” MSNBC (August 8, 2007), accessed March 4, 2012, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20178936/ns/technology_and_sciencescience/
t/fossils-paint-messy-picture-human-origins/.
93. Wood and Collard, “The Human Genus,” 65–71.
94. Gibbons, “Who Was Homo habilis—And Was It Really Homo?,” 1370–71.
95. Wood’s views are described in Gibbons, “Who Was Homo habilis—And Was It Really Homo?,” 1370–71. See also Wood and Collard, “The Human Genus,” 65–71.
96. Spoor, Wood, and Zonneveld, “Implications of early hominid labyrinthine morphology for evolution of human bipedal locomotion,” 645–48.
97. Ibid.
98. Hartwig-Scherer and Martin, “Was ‘Lucy’ more human than her ‘child’? Observations on early hominid postcranial skeletons,” 439–49.
99. Ibid.
100. Sigrid Hartwig-Scherer, “Apes or Ancestors?” in Mere Creation: Science, Faith & Intelligent Design, ed. William Dembski (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1998), 226.
101. Ibid.
102. Ibid.
103. Dean Falk, “Hominid Brain Evolution: Looks Can Be Deceiving,” Science, 280 (June 12, 1998): 1714 (diagram description omitted).
104. Wood and Collard, “The Human Genus,” 65–71. Specifically, Homo erectus is said to have intermediate brain size, and Homo ergaster has a Homo-like postcranial skeleton with a smaller more australopithecine-like brain size.
105. Wood and Collard, “The Human Genus,” 65–71.
106. Terrance W. Deacon, “Problems of Ontogeny and Phylogeny in Brain-Size Evolution,” International Journal of Primatology, 11 (1990): 237–82. See also Terrence W. Deacon, “What makes the human brain different?,” Annual Review of Anthropology, 26 (1997): 337–57; Stephen Molnar, Human Variation:Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups, 5th ed. (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2002), 189 (“The size of the brain is but one of the factors related to human intelligence”).
107. Marchal, “A New Morphometric Analysis of the Hominid Pelvic Bone,” 347–65.
108. Hawks, Hunley, Lee, and Wolpoff, “Population Bottlenecks and Pleistocene Human Evolution,” 2–22.
109. Ibid.
110. Ibid.
111. Lieberman, Pilbeam, and Wrangham, “The Transition from Australopithecus to Homo,” 1.
112. Ibid.
113. Ian Tattersall, “Once we were not alone,” Scientific American (January, 2000): 55–62.
114. Ernst Mayr, What Makes Biology Unique?: Considerations on the Autonomy of a Scientific Discipline (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 198.
115. “New study suggests big bang theory of human evolution” University of Michigan News Service (January 10, 2000), accessed March 4, 2012, http://www.umich.edu/~newsinfo/Releases/2000/Jan00/r011000b.html.
116. See for example Eric Delson, “One skull does not a species make,” Nature, 389 (October 2, 1997): 445–46; Hawks et al., “Population Bottlenecks and Pleistocene Human Evolution,” 2–22; Emilio Aguirre, “Homo erectus and Homo sapiens: One or More Species?,” in 100 Years of Pithecanthropus: TheHomo erectus Problem 171 Courier Forschungsinstitut Seckenberg, ed. Jens Lorenz (Frankfurt: Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, 1994), 333–339; Milford H. Wolpoff, Alan G. Thorne, Jan Jelínek, and Zhang Yinyun, “The Case for Sinking Homo erectus: 100 Years of Pithecanthropus is Enough!,” in100 Years of Pithecanthropus: The Homo erectus Problem 171 Courier Forschungsinstitut Seckenberg, ed. Jens Lorenz (Frankfurt: Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, 1994), 341–361.
117. See Hartwig-Scherer and Martin, “Was ‘Lucy’ more human than her ‘child’? Observations on early hominid postcranial skeletons,” 439–49.
118. Spoor, Wood, and Zonneveld, “Implications of early hominid labyrinthine morphology for evolution of human bipedal locomotion,” 645–48.
119. William R. Leonard and Marcia L. Robertson, “Comparative Primate Energetics and Hominid Evolution,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 102 (February, 1997): 265–81.
120. William R. Leonard, Marcia L. Robertson, and J. Josh Snodgrass, “Energetic Models of Human Nutritional Evolution,” in Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable, ed. Peter S. Ungar (Oxford University Press, 2007), 344–59.
121. References for cranial capacities cited in Figure 3-11 are as follows: Gorilla: Stephen Molnar, Human Variation: Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups, 4th ed. (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1998), 203. Chimpanzee: Molnar, Human Variation: Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups, 4th ed., 203. Australopithecus: Glenn C. Conroy, Gerhard W. Weber, Horst Seidler, Phillip V. Tobias, Alex Kane, Barry Brunsden, “Endocranial Capacity in an Early Hominid Cranium from Sterkfontein, South Africa,” Science, 280 (June 12, 1998): 1730–31; Wood and Collard, “The Human Genus,” 65–71. Homo habilis: Wood and Collard, “The Human Genus,” 65–71. Homo erectus: Molnar, Human Variation: Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups, 4th ed., 203; Wood and Collard, “The Human Genus,” 65–71. Neanderthals: Molnar, Human Variation: Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups, 4th ed., 203; Molnar, Human Variation: Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups, 5th ed., 189. Homo sapiens (modern man): Molnar, Human Variation: Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups, 4th ed., 203; E. I. Odokuma, P. S. Igbigbi, F. C. Akpuaka and U. B. Esigbenu, Craniometric patterns of three Nigerian ethnic groups,” International Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, 2 (February, 2010): 34–37; Molnar, Human Variation: Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups, 5th ed., 189.
122. Donald C. Johanson and Maitland Edey, Lucy: The Beginnings of Humankind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1981), 144.
123. Ibid.
124. See Wood and Collard, “The Human Genus,” 65–71.
128. Francesco d’Errico quoted in Alper, “Rethinking Neanderthals.”
129. Molnar, Human Variation: Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups, 5th ed., 189.
130. B. Arensburg, A. M. Tillier, B. Vandermeersch, H. Duday, L. A. Schepartz, and. Y. Rak, “A Middle Palaeolithic human hyoid bone,” Nature, 338 (April 27, 1989): 758–60.
131. Alper, “Rethinking Neanderthals”; Kate Wong, “Who were the Neandertals?,” Scientific American (August, 2003): 28–37; Erik Trinkaus and Pat Shipman, “Neandertals: Images of Ourselves,” Evolutionary Anthropology, 1 (1993): 194–201; Philip G. Chase and April Nowell, “Taphonomy of a Suggested Middle Paleolithic Bone Flute from Slovenia,” Current Anthropology, 39 (August/October 1998): 549–53; Tim Folger and Shanti Menon, “... Or Much Like Us?,” Discover Magazine, January, 1997, accessed March 5, 2012, http://discovermagazine.com/1997/jan/ormuchlikeus1026; C. B. Stringer, “Evolution of early humans,” in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution, eds. Steve Jones, Robert Martin, and David Pilbeam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 248.
132. Philip G. Chase and April Nowell, “Taphonomy of a Suggested Middle Paleolithic Bone Flute from Slovenia,” Current Anthropology, 39 (August/October 1998): 549–553; Folger and Menon, “... Or Much Like Us?”
133. Notes in Nature, 77 (April 23, 1908): 587.
134. Metub Eren quoted in Jessica Ruvinsky, “Cavemen: They’re Just Like Us,” Discover Magazine (January, 2009), accessed March 5, 2012,http://discovermagazine.com/2009/jan/008.
135. Erik Trinkaus, quoted in Kaufman, “Modern Man, Neanderthals Seen as Kindred Spirits.”
136. Erik Trinkaus and Cidália Duarte, “The Hybrid Child from Portugal,” Scientific American (August, 2003): 32.
138. Ibid.
139. Delson, “One skull does not a species make,” 445–46.
140. Leslie Aiello quoted in Leakey and Lewin, Origins Reconsidered: In Search of What Makes Us Human, 196. See also Wood and Collard, “The Human Genus,” 65–71.
141. Hartwig-Scherer, “Apes or Ancestors,” 220.